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At the same time that ecological models and the concept of adaptation were being challenged within cultural anthropology, critiques and reformulations were emerging from within evolutionary biology (Levins and Lewontin 1985) and also biological anthropology (Armelagos et al. 1992; Goodman et al. 1988; Leatherman 1996; Thomas 1998). These critiques were corrective responses to research in the 1960s and early 1970s, during which societies were seen as relatively closed and static, and human biologists were mainly focused on understanding genetic adaptations to stable physical and biotic extremes. However, two decades of research showed that human populations exhibited many more nongenetic (developmental, physiological and cultural, and now also epigenetic) responses than genetic responses to environmental stressors (Smith 1993). Thus, biological plasticity and sociocultural environments were recognized as the keys to understanding the human adaptive process (Hicks and Leonard 2014; Smith 1993).