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Across the Andes, O’Higgins joined forces with the Argentine general José San Martín, who was preparing to drive the Royalists out of South America. San Martín’s ‘Army of the Andes’ and O’Higgins’ Patriots launched their offensive in February 1817, crossing the mountains from Mendoza by four different passes and routing the Royalists at the Battle of Chacabuco, and then again at the Battle of Maipú. Chilean independence was declared in April 1818, with the task of leadership passing to O’Higgins (the position was offered to San Martín, but he declined). The Royalists in Peru were soon defeated, although Spain did not recognize Chilean independence until 1840.

The 19th century

O’Higgins ruled until 1823, but the taxes introduced to rebuild the country’s war-ravaged economy, and his anti-clerical reforms, made his position increasingly untenable, and he finally went into exile in Argentina, where he died in 1842. There followed an unsettled period, until stability was restored under the authoritarian rule of Diego Portales in 1829. Portales consolidated his position by issuing a new constitution, giving the head of state increased power, and maintaining the support of landowners and clergy, astutely judging it neccessary to overturn those reforms which threatened Church privileges, but he was assassinated in 1837 following his declaration of war on Peru.