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Unfortunately, it is not easy to distinguish orpiment from the yellow dye with simple naked-eye observation, since the color hues of the two painting materials seem to overlap (especially in the lighter yellow hues); these similarities are probably related to specific painting techniques such as different dilutions, etc. Nevertheless, the darker hue of the warrior’s costume in the lower register of folio 64r seems to be characteristic of the yellow dye. While the use of orpiment is not recorded in any colonial historical source, various organic yellows/oranges are mentioned with names that probably refer both to the organic dye and to the lake from which it was obtained. Zacatlaxcalli was a yellow obtained from Cuscuta sp. plants, while xochipalli was a more orange tint obtained from Cosmos sulphureus (Dupey García 2015, 254; 2016). Zacatlaxcalli is a likely source of the non-orpiment yellow of the Codex Mendoza, as previously suggested by Gómez Tejada.

In the brownish/orangeish areas on folio 37r (cuexcómatl) and folio 63r (teponaztli), XRF analysis and UV-Vis reflection indicated the presence of an iron-based pigment, possibly rich in goethite. XRF also showed a higher signal of arsenic in these same areas (and of manganese only on folio 63r), but it is not clear if this indicates that the ochre was mixed with orpiment or if arsenic naturally occurred within the ochre.